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The history of spices, condiments and
other flavoring plants has been considered one of the most romantic chapters
in the history of vegetable products (Hill 1952). Since ancient times spices have been eagerly sought and highly
valued. The craving for spices has
been one of the driving forces in human progress and has changed the course
of history and geography. The
discovery of new lands and of shorter trade routs and the colonization of
areas that grew spices have resulted partly from this interest in aromatic
plants. A quest for spices created a
furor comparable to the Crusades, and was one of the dominant factors in
European history during the Middle Ages and into the 16th Century. However, the use and cultivation of spices
can be traced to the beginnings of history.
Spices have played an important part in all the ancient civilizations
of China and India, in Babylon and Egypt and in Greece and Rome. The spices of greatest international
importance originated in the Asiatic tropics and were among the first objects
of commerce between the East and the West.
The Arabs were the first spice traders, bringing their products from
southern India and the Spice Islands by caravan to Arabia and from there to
Europe. This trade later spread to
other countries as well. For many
years Venice, Italy led the trade. In
the 16th Century the Portuguese assumed control and held a monopoly for 200
years. The Dutch followed and later
the British Empire shared with Holland most of the world spice trade. Spices have
been put to many uses such as to season insipid foods and to give zest to an
otherwise monotonous diet as well as to serve as preservatives. Their aromatic qualities were useful in
overcoming offensive odors of spoiled food.
They were used in beverages, medicine and even in lieu of
currency. Rich and poor alike sought
after spices and they were expensive because of the demand and the difficulty
and cost of obtaining them. They were
the basis of many great fortunes during 1300-1700 A.D. The use of
spices then somewhat diminished in modern times, especially as other means of
food preservation were deployed. The
practice of importing the various aromatic materials in a crude state and
converting them into a powdered or ground form is still followed in an effort
to prevent adulteration and to ensure the quality of the final product. Essential oils that are obtained from the
various substances are also imported in large quantity. Spices are
not usually classed as foods for they contain little of nutritive value. However, they do give an agreeable flavor
and aroma to food and greatly enhance the pleasure of eating. They stimulate the appetite and increase
the flow of gastric juices.
Therefore, they are often called food accessories or adjuncts. Their value is due to the presence of the
essential oils and occasionally to other aromatic entities. The medicinal
value of spices is not a great as was believed during the Middle Ages, but a
large number of them are still official drugs in both Europe and
America. They are used as
carminatives and antiseptics and to hide the unpleasant taste of other
drugs. They also are important in
many industries and are used in perfumery, incense, and soaps, as dyes, in
histology and in some arts. Most spices
are still obtained from the tropics, predominantly Asia. Africa supplies the grains of paradise
while tropical America furnishes vanilla, red pepper and allspice. A small number are found in the cooler
temperate regions of the Old World.
Classification of spices is difficult as there are no absolute
boundaries between the various groups.
Usually all aromatic vegetable products that are used for flavoring
foods and drinks are included under spices.
In other cases the term “spice” is confined to hard or hardened parts
of plants that are usually used in a pulverized condition. Condiments are spices or other flavoring
substances that have a sharp taste and are usually added to food after it has
been cooked. Savory seeds are small
fruits or seeds that are used whole.
In the sweet or savory herbs, fresh or dried leaves are used for
flavoring or garnishing. Essences are
aqueous or alcoholic extractions of the essential oils. Because of the difficulty of distinguishing
between spices, condiments, and the other flavoring substances, it is
probably best to consider this group on a morphological basis== the nature of
the plant part utilized (Hill 1952).
A few more common spices out of the hundreds in existence are herein
considered under roots, barks, buds and flowers, fruits, seeds, and leaves
and stems. Spices
from Roots & Rootstalks Angelica,
Angelica archangelica, is a stout perennial herb with large pinnately compound
leaves and small greenish-white flowers in terminal compound umbels. It is indigenous to Syria but now occurs
in many parts of Europe and Western Asia in low ground. It has even made it to boreal regions in
Lapland and the Alps. The entire
plant is aromatic. The roots and
fruits are dried and used for flavoring cakes, candy and beverages, such as
vermouth and the various bitters and liqueurs. The young stems and leafstalks are candied by steeping them in
syrups of increasing strength.
Candied angelica is used for decorating and flavoring other candy and
cakes because of its attractive bright green color and aromatic taste. The oil that is usually distilled from the
fruits is used in flavoring, perfumery and medicine. It is widely cultivated in Germany and it
dates from about 1,500 AD. Lesser Galangal, Alpinia officinarum, is native to southern
China and was in ancient times there.
It is a perennial herb with a raceme of showy flowers and ornamental
foliage. The reddish-brown rhizomes have
an aromatic, spicy odor and a pungent taste, like a mixture of pepper and
ginger. Galangal has lost much of its
importance in modern times, bit it is still used to some extent in cooking,
medicine and for flavoring liqueurs and bitters. Greater Galangal, Alpinia
galanga, is a larger plant of Java and Malaya. It is also used for flavoring purposes. Ginger, Zingiber officinale, is the most important
spice that is obtained from roots. It
has a long and interesting history.
Indigenous in Southeastern Asia, it was used in China and India in
ancient times, and was brought by caravans to Asia Minor before the Roman
Empire. It was among the first of the
oriental spices to be known in Europe where it became prominent early in the
Middle Ages. For many years it was an
important drug, being the principal ingredient of a remedy for the plague
especially in England during the reign of Henry VIII. Ginger is now cultivated over a wider area
than most spices due most likely to the ease with which the roots can be
transported. It was one of the first
Asiatic spices to be grown in the Western Hemisphere. The plant is an erect perennial
herb with thick scaly rhizomes that branch digitately and are known as
“hands.” The stem reaches a height of
about three feet and is surrounded by the sheathing bases of the leaves. The flowers are borne in a spike with
greenish-yellow bracts subtending the yellowish flowers that have a purple
lip. Ginger is mostly cultivated in
small home gardens. A rich moist
soil, partial shade and a tropical climate are desirable. Propagation is by rhizomes. The rhizomes are pale yellow in
color externally and a greenish yellow inside. They contain starch, gums, an oleoresin and an essential
oil. The different varieties vary in
the content of the latter two contents.
The rhizomes are removed from the soil after the aerial parts of the
plant have withered. Two ways are used to prepare
ginger. In Preserved Green Ginger the
young juicy rhizomes are dried, cleaned, and boiled in water until
tender. They are then peeled,
scraped, and boiled several times in a sugar solution. They are finally packed in a similar
solution. Sometimes preserved ginger
is prepared in a dry state by dusting the drying rhizomes with powdered
sugar. In Dried or Cured Ginger the
rhizomes are cleaned, carefully peeled and dried in the sun. They are sometimes parboiled in water or
limejuice before peeling. This is the
black ginger of commerce. Bleaching
the rhizomes makes white ginger. An essential oil contributes to
the aromatic odor of ginger, while the pungent taste is due to the presence
of the nonvolatile oleoresin, Gingerin. Ginger is used more as a condiment than as
a spice. It dilates the blood vessels
in the skin, causing a feeling of warmth and increases perspiration with an
accompanying drop in temperature. Ginger is used in medicine as a
carminative and a digestive stimulant.
It is widely used in culinary preparations, such as soups, pickles,
puddings, gingerbread and cookies and is an ingredient of all curries except
those used with fish. Ginger is very
popular for flavoring beverages such as ginger ale and ginger beer. It was once added to wine and porter. The oleoresin is extracted and used in
medicine and flavoring. The essential
oil is also extracted. Ginger is grown mainly in China,
Japan, Sierra Leone, Queensland, Indonesia and Jamaica and other West Indies
islands where the soil and climate are favorable. Armoracia lapathifolia is indigenous to
Southeastern Europe. The plant is
widely grown both in Europe and America and often escapes from cultivation
and becomes established as a troublesome weed. It is a tall hardy plant with glossy green toothed leaves and
masses of small whtie flowers. The
large, fleshy, white cylindrical roots are usually dug in the autumn. They are scraped or grated and used as a
ocndiment, either fresh or preserved in vinegar. The pungent taste is due to a glucoside, Sinigrin, that is
broken down in water by enzyme action.
it is similar to mustard oil in its properties. Horseradish is a valuable condiment that
has been used for centuries as it aids digestion and prevents scurvy. Sasaparilla, is obtained from the
dried roots of some tropical species of Smilax, among them Similax aristolochiaefolia from Mexico, S. officinalis from Hondurus and S. regelii from Jamaica. The
plants are climbing or trailing vines with prickly stems. They are found in dense moist
jungles. Propagation is by seed,
layering, cuttings or suckers. They
have a short thick rhizome and very long thin roots that extend to 10
ft. Thus the collection of roots is a
laborious process. They are harvested
when 2-3 years of age. The roots have
a bitter substance that is used for flavoring. Sasaparilla is usually used in combination with wintergreen and
other aromatics. it was once used in
medicine. Turmeric, Curcuma longa, is both a dye and a
spice. It is native to Cochin China
and the East Indies and is widely cultivated in all the world tropics. Turmeric is popular in India where
enormous quantities have been used for centuries. The plant is a robust perennial with a short stem and tufted
leaves. The pale yellow flowers are
borne in dense spikes, topped by a tuft of pinkish bracts. The rhizomes that supply the colorful
condiment are short and thick with blunt tubers. They are cleaned, washed and dried in the sun. Turmeric is very aromatic with a musky
odor and it has a pungent bitter taste.
It is used to flavor, and at the same time color, butter, cheese,
pickles, mustard and other foodstuffs.
Turmeric is one of the main ingredients of curry. Curry is not a single substance, but a
compound of many spices. Each type of
meat or other food requires its own particular curry. One recipe for a meat curry includes
turmeric, coriander, cinnamon, cumin, ginger, cardamom, fenugreek, cayenne
pepper, pimiento, black pepper, long pepper, cloves and nutmeg. Another curry, used for fish, is made of
turmeric, coriander, black pepper, cumin, cayenne pepper and fenugreek. Zedoary, Curcuma zedoaria, is similar in habit
to Turmeric but with pale yellowish or white flowers and showy crimson or
purple bracts. It is extensively
grown in India for the large tuberous rhizomes that are sliced and
dried. It is used as a spice for
flavoring liqueurs and curries.
However its principal use today is in medicine, perfumery and cosmetics. Cassia, Cinnamomum cassia, is also known as
Chinese Cinnamon. It is a spice that
was used in China since 2,500 B.C., in Egypt in the 17th Century B.C. and was
familiar to people of the Mediterranean region since ancient times. In the earlier records it is often
confused with cinnamon. Cassia is an
evergreen tree of Burma that reaches 40 ft in height, with smooth pale bark,
small pale yellow flowers and a fleshy drupe like fruit. The tree is grown in southern China from
seed, usually on terraced hillsides.
Trees from 60-10 years of age are cut down and cut up into short
lengths. The bark is loosened,
stripped off and dried. Cassia bark
reaches the markets in the form of dark reddish brown “quills,” usually with
some patches of grayish cork on the outside.
It varies in quality, but is always very aromatic although not as
delicate as cinnamon. It contains
tannin, sugar, starch, a dye, a fixed oil and the essential oil that is
distilled and used in medicine and flavoring. Cassia buds are the dried unripe
fruits that contain the same essential oil.
They are picked when only one-fourth grown and resemble small cloves. Sources of cassia of lesser
importance are Indian cassia from Cinnamomum tamala; Padan cassia with
smooth bark and no cork from C. burmannii from
Indonesia. Large amounts of this
cassia have been exported to America.
Oliver’s bark, C. oliveri, of Australia and Massola bark, C. massoia, of New Guinea are of
lesser importance. The bark and oil of cassias are
used in medicine, for flavoring and in soap, perfumery and candy. Cinnamon,
Cinnamomum zeylanicum, quickly superseded cassia once it was discovered. Native people used it long before it
attracted the foreign trade. It is
native to Sri Lanka and is often called Ceylon cinnamon. For years it was grown only in Sri Lanka
and was a monopoly of the Portuguese, Dutch and English in succession. Today the tree is grown in southern India,
Burma, and parts of Malaya and in tropical America. The plant is an evergreen shrub or
small tree with attractive dark coriaceous aromatic leaves, numerous
inconspicuous yellow flowers and blackish berries. When cultivated the young trees are cut back and sucker shoots
develop from the roots. These are
long and slender and provide the commercial product. They are cut twice a year, the bark is
removed and the outer and inner portions are scraped away. After drying compound quills are tied up
ready for shipment. The waste is used
as a source of oil of cinnamon. The
leaves and roots are also aromatic but the essential oil differs from that in
the bark and is of little value.
Cinnamon is a very popular spice for flavoring foods. It is also used in candy, gum, incense,
dentifrices and perfumes. The oil is
used in medicine as a carminative, antiseptic and astringent and as a source
of cinnamon extract. Saigon cinnamon or Saigon cassia, Cinnamomum loureirii, is grown in
Vietnam. Its coarse bark is valued in
China and Japan and is also used in America where it is recognized as an
official cinnamon in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia. <bot71> Cinnamon Tree (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) [Ceylon], (ex. Riverside, CA) Although not a true spice,
sassafras is an important flavoring material. It is obtained from the bark on the roots of Sassafras albidum of eastern North
America. The sassafras is a tree of
60-100 ft. height with typically lobed leaves and greenish yellow dioecious
flowers produced before the leaves and dark blue drupes with red stalks. Amerindians and early colonists used the
spicy root bark. All parts of the
plant are aromatic. The bark is
gathered in the spring or autumn, deprived of the outer corky layers and
dried. The supply comes mainly from
Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia and North Carolina. Sassafras is used for flavoring tobacco, patent medicines, root
beer and other beverages, soaps, perfumes, dentrifices and gum. Both sassafras bark and sassafras pith are
used in medicine. The oil is obtained
by distillation and is used for flavoring and as a source of artificial
heliotrope. It is also an ingredient
of soap and floor and polishing oils. Spices from
Flowers or Flower Buds Capparis spinosa is a trailing spiny
shrub only a few feet tall. It is
native to the Mediterranean region and is cultivated in Southern Europe and
the southern United States. The
solitary berrylike fruits are borne on thick stalks. The unopened flower buds are gathered
every morning and pickled in salt and strong vinegar. These capers are roughly spherical and
round angled, and dark green in color.
They have a very pungent taste and are used as condiments with meat
and in sauces and pickles. Cloves, Syzygium
aromaticum,
were in use in the 3rd Century B.C. in China, was well known to the Romans
and reached northern Europe during the Middle Ages. Their source and place of origin were not known until the
Portuguese discovered the Molucca Islands in the 16th Century. For a while cloves were a Portuguese and
later a Dutch monopoly. Today they
are grown all over the world’s tropics. The clove is the unopened flower
bud of a small, conical and very symmetrical evergreen tree. In the wild state it produces clusters of
crimson flowers, but in cultivation it never reaches the flowering state. The flower buds are greenish or reddish
when fresh and become brown and brittle on drying. They have a nail-like shape and the name “clove” is derived
from the French word for nail, clou.
They have a slightly cylindrical base surmounted by the plump,
ball-like unopened corolla that is surrounded by the 4-toothed calyx. The buds are picked by hand, stemmed and
dried in the sun or in kilns. The
crop is difficult to grow, as yields are uncertain. Curttngs are useless and the seeds germinate and grow
slowly. Therefore, nursery seedlings
are usually necessary for large scale propagation. The yield is low until trees are at least 20 years old. Adequate moisture in the soil is required
and growth is best near the ocean. Cloves are very aromatic and fine
flavored imparting warming qualities.
They have many uses both whole and in the ground state, as a culinary
spice, for the flavor blends well with both sweet and savory foods. They are used for flavoring pickles,
curries, ketchup and sauces, in medicine and for perfuming the
environment. Cloves have stimulating
properties and are one of the ingredients of betel-nut chew. Clove cigarettes are smoked in Java. The essential oil that is obtained
by distilling cloves with water or steam is also valuable. it is used in medicine as an aid to
digestion and for its antiseptic and antispasmodic action. it is often used as a local antiseptic in
dentistry. Externally it has a
counterirritant action. it is an
ingredient in many toothpastes and mouthwashes. The oil has many industrial applications and is widely employed
in perfumes, in scenting soap and as a clearing agent in histological
preparations. The main constituent of
the oil, Eugenol, is extracted and used as an imitation
carnation in perfumes and for the formation of artificial vanilla. Clove stems are a commercial
product with a lesser content of the essential oil. The dried fruits, known as mother cloves, are also valuable. Zanzibar, Indonesia, Mauritius and the
West Indies produce most of the crop. <bot451> Clove orchard [Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Perry] in Jamaica
highlands Saffron Crocus, Crocus sativus, cultivation dates to
the time of the Greeks and Hebrews and is still carried on in many parts of
Europe and the Orient. The dried
stigmas and tops of the styles are used as a spice and as a dye. Saffron was of great importance during the
Middle Ages for its both real and fancied value in medicine. It is used today as a flavoring and as an
ingredient of many Continental dishes, especially the famous French
bouillabaisse. The essential
oils in certain flowers are often used for flavoring candy, cakes and similar
products, though as in the case of perfumes, synthetic substances have
replaced the natural ones. Otto of
Roses and the oil from sweet violets are still used. Floral syrups are also prepared and used
for flavoring ices and beverages.
Crystallized flowers are used that are prepared by placing fresh
flowers in baskets and allowing sugar syrup to trickle over them until
saturation. They are then dried in
the sun or with artificial heat.
These confections have the flavor imparted by the respective essential
oils. The industry centers in Grasse,
France. The flowers utilized include
violets, rose petals, lavender, carnations, lilac and orange. Pimenta dioica, is a small tree
native to the West Indies and parts of Central and South America. The dried unripe fruits make up the spice
called allspice, Pimento or Jamaica
pepper. The name “allspice” comes
from the flavor that resembles a combination of cinnamon, nutmeg and clove. The tree is evergreen, 20-30 ft.
tall with greenish white flowers and purple fruits. The ripe fruits lose most of their aromatic qualities so the
commercial product is gathered when the berries are mature but still green. Branches are broken off and the fruit
removed by hand or flails. The ripe
and undersized berries are discarded and the desirable ones dried for several
days. They become wrinkled and turn
dull reddish brown while the aroma becomes more pronounced. This tree is common in Jamaica where it
does not have to be cultivated. It
grows slowly and begins to bare when about 7 years old and continues to bear
for 12 years with an average yield of 75-100 lbs. per tree. Allspice is used as a culinary
spice in a mixture with other spices of alone. It is especially favored for pickles, sausages, soups and
sauces. The extracted oil is used for
flavoring and perfumery. The leaves
contain an inferior oil of bay that is sometimes used to adulterate bay
rum. The wood is used for canes and
umbrella handles. Although Jamaica
produces most of the commercial product, Mexico and Guatemala grow a small
amount. The most important contribution of
America to the spices is capsicum or red pepper. Today these are actually consumed in large quantity as a
vegetable, but will be treated in this section. This condiment is obtained from the fruits of several different
plants all of which belong to the genus Capsicum. The genus is native to tropical America
and the West Indies. The use of
capsicums in America date back to pre-Inca times. Capsicums reached Europe shortly after the voyages of Columbus
who found the West Indian natives commonly using red pepper, By 1600 capsicums had become widespread
in the Eastern tropics where they are an important part of the diet to this
day. The long time that capsicums were
cultivated by Amerindians has resulted in many varieties that differ in habit
and in the size, shape, color and pungency of the fruit. Among these are the bell peppers, chiles,
paprikas, pimientos, tabascos and others.
They are believed by many authorities to be derived from a single
species known variously as Capsicum frutescens or C. annuum. All of the capsicums contain an
indigestible skin that covers the fruit.
This can be removed by roasting the fruits over an open flame or in a
broiler for a few minutes on each side.
The skin then blisters and may be easily removed, which facilitates
digestion. Capsicum frutescens var.
grossum are
herbs or slightly woody plants, 2-3 ft. tall, with ovate leaves, white
flowers with a rotate corolla and many-seeded fleshy fruits that are
technically berries. The fruits are
large and puffy with a depression at the base and are yellow or red in color
when ripe. This variety includes some
of the mildest of all the capsicums as the pungent principle is confined to
the seeds. They are widely used in
temperate areas of America and Europe where they are used as a fruit
vegetable rather than a spice. Both
green and ripe peppers are consumed raw in salads, or are cooked in various
ways, stuffed peppers being very popular.
They are also used in pickles.
The plants are grown as annuals or biennials, depending on the
climate. A long season is required
but they are well adapted to cooler areas for they are somewhat frost
tolerant. These are
European varieties with large mild fruits.
Spanish paprika, better known as pimiento, produces attractive fruits
with a typical flavor, but entirely lacking in pungency. They are preserved and are used in cheese
preparations and stuffed olives. They
are also grown in South America, California and Georgia. Hungarian paprika has long pointed fruits
that are more pungent. They are dried
and used for powdered paprika or fresh in salads. The uses of paprika as a condiment and in cooking are well
known. It has high vitamin content. Capsicum frutescens var.
longum
are
wholly tropical and subtropical plants.
They are more woody and taller with small pod like berries and
innumerable small flat seeds. The
crimson or orange-red fruits are elongated, conical, somewhat flattened and
very pungent. The pungent principles
are present in the flesh, rind and seeds.
These peppers are cultivated throughout the world tropics. The African varieties are the hottest, but
Japanese chiles are more favored for culinary purposes. The ripe fruits are dried in the sun and
used whole or powdered. The ground
fruits constitute the cayenne pepper or red pepper of commerce. Capsicum is used in medicine internally as
a powerful stimulant and carminative and to prevent fever. It is used externally as a counterirritant. It is extensively used in such beverages
as ginger ale because of its pungency.
There are countless culinary uses for chiles. These peppers are especially favored in
the America tropics where they are used in chile con carne, tamales and other
dishes. Extracting the pulp by
pressure and pickling in brine or strong vinegar makes pepper sauce. Tabasco sauce is pepper sauce made from a
small variety grown in Louisiana. In North America Mexico,
California, New Mexico and Texas are the chief producers of chiles. Many varieties with varying degrees of
pungency are grown and they are usually consumed whole or after drying the
flesh is removed after boiling the dried fruits in water. The dried chiles develop flavors that are
distinct from the fresh fruit and are more often used as a traditional spice. Juniperus communis has berries that are
used as a flavoring substance. This
is a small tree or prostrate shrub with evergreen needlelike leaves and a
berrylike cone, formed by the fleshy coalesced scales. It is native to the cooler parts of Asia,
Europe and North America. The berries
have a sweetish pulp with a typical gin like aroma. They are purple in color with a greenish bloom. When dried they are used in flavoring wild
game and various meats, but more typically for gin. The volatile oil that is extracted from crushed berries by
steam distillation is also used for flavoring gin and in some medicines. This kind of
pepper has been an important spice in the East since ancient times. It was important to the early Greeks and
Romans, and was the principal spice used during the Middle Ages when tributes
were often levied in pepper. As early
as 1180 AD the Guild of Pepperers was one of the leading trade guilds in
England. London still retains its
identity as the center of the pepper trade.
The high prices charged for pepper was one of the main incentives for
the search for a sea route to India. Black
Pepper, Piper nigrum, is a vine indigenous
to India or the Indo-Malayan region. It
is now cultivated everywhere in the Eastern tropics from Africa to India,
Thailand, the Philippines the East Indies and the South Sea Islands. The plant is a weak climbing or trailing
shrub with adventitious roots that reach a length of 30 ft. in the wild
state. It has coriaceous evergreen
leaves and very small flower4s in catkins.
The fruits are small one-seeded berry-like drupes, about 50 to a
catkin. In ripening they change in
color from green to bright red and then to yellow. Pepper requires a hot humid climate and at least partial
shade. Various soils can be
used. The plants are supported on
posts or living trees. When they reach
about 2 ft. in height the tip is removed to promote the development of
lateral buds. The crop begins to
yield in 2-3 years and reaches full bearing in 7 years. Propagation is by seed or cuttings from
the tips of the vines. The
preparation of black pepper of commerce involves gathering the fruits when at
least a few of the berries in each spike are red. They are picked by hand.
The spikes are dried in the sun or in smoke and are sometimes treated
with boiling water before drying.
When dry the berries or peppercorns are rubbed off, winnowed and
packed for shipment. They are reddish
brown or black with a wrinkled surface and measure 3-5 mm. in diameter. White Pepper
is the same species as white pepper but it is prepared from berries that are
nearly ripe. They are picked and
piled-up to ferment or are soaked in water.
The pulp and outer coating of the seed are then removed. White pepper is a yellowish gray color and
the surface is smooth. Oftentimes
white pepper is prepared from black peppercorns by grinding off the outer
parts by machine. Although not as
pungent as black pepper, white pepper is often preferred in the trade. Commercial ground pepper is often a blend. The aromatic
odor of pepper is due to a volatile oil, while the pungent taste is the
presence of an oleoresin. An alkaloid
is also present. Pepper stimulates
the flow of saliva and gastric juices and has a cooling effect. The culinary uses are numerous, and it is
especially valuable as a condiment.
Pepper by itself as well as the oleoresin and alkaloid are used in
medicine. The alkaloid is used as a
source of synthetic heliotrope. Long pepper is derived from Piper retrofractum, of Java and Piper longum of India. The first species is a climbing woody
plant native to Malaya but is cultivated in Java, Bali and adjacent
islands. The latter species is more
of a shrub and is native to India, Sri-Lanka and the Philippines. It is grown extensively in Bengal. The Romans preferred long pepper to black
pepper. The tiny fruits are fused
into cylindrical spike like cones.
These are collected when unripe and dried quickly in the sun or over
fires. Long pepper contains the same
principles as black pepper, but is more aromatic and sweeter. It is grown in the same manner as black
pepper. It is used chiefly in the
tropics in pickles, preserves and curries. This is the fruit of a small
evergreen tree, Illicium
verum,
probably native to China. The
star-shaped reddish-brown fruits consist of eight carpels, each with a hard
shiny seed. Both the seeds and the
fruit are aromatic with a flavor of anise.
The plant is cultivated from seed only in southern China and Viet
Nam. It requires special climatic
conditions for development. The tree
yields from 6-100 years of age, often producing two crops per year. The fruits re collected before they are
ripe and are dried or are immediately distilled for the oil. Star anise is used as a culinary spice in
Eastern cooking. It is often chewed
to sweeten the breath and aid digestion.
The oil is used in medicine as a carminative, expectorant and
flavoring and also in liqueurs, aperitifs and perfumery. Vanilla planifolia is a climbing orchid,
native to the hot humid forests of tropical America. The flavoring material is obtained from
the cured, fully grown but unripe fruits.
It was extensively used in Pre-Columbian America. The Europeans who found the Aztecs using
it to flavor chocolate, carried vanilla to Europe. It soon reached the Eastern tropics and was cultivated in many
areas. The plant is a climbing vine with
fleshy adventitious roots, large succulent leaves and greenish-yellow
flowers. The fruits are long, thin,
yellow, pod like capsules known as vanilla beans. Vanilla is a wholly tropical species and requires a hot climate
with frequent rains. In cultivation
it is grown from cuttings and is trained on posts or living trees. The flowers are pollinated by hand, but in
nature pollination is by stingless bees of the genus Melipona, and
perhaps also by hummingbirds. William
Roland in Maryland, USA is investigating
Melipona bees as pollinators of vanilla. The Melipona species are vicious
biters and have never been domesticated.
However, their honey that is derived from an array of tropical plants
is of the highest quality. Sadly,
according to William Roland these bees are under threat of extinction by
competitive Africanized bees that have spread throughout the Americas from a
poorly conceived hybridization experiment in Brazil. The flavor and aroma of vanilla is
not present in the pods until they have been cured. The unripe fruits are picked at just the right time and
submitted to a sweating process. They
are exposed to the sun during the morning, and are then protected by covers
during the afternoon. At night they
are placed in airtight boxes. During
this curing process a glucoside is changed by enzyme action into a
crystalline substance, Vanillin, which possesses the
characteristic odor and flavor. The
pods become tough and pliable and very fragrant, and turn dark brown in
color. Frequently crystals of
vanillin appear on the surface.
Vanilla is cultivated in many tropical areas where an island climate
is particular favorable. Mexico, the
Seychelles Islands, Madagascar, the Comoro Islands, Reunion, Tahiti,
Dominica, Puerto Rico and Guadeloupe are principal producing areas. West Indian or Pompona
Vanilla is obtained from Vanilla pompona, a species with shorter,
thicker pods. Vanilla is used to flavor
chocolate, ice cream, candy, puddings, cakes, beverages, etc. Sometimes the beans are used but more
often an extract is prepared by soaking the crushed beans in alcohol. The manufacture of synthetic vanillin from
eugenol, which occurs in clove oil, has threatened the vanilla industry, but
the natural product has a superior flavor.
Several other plants have been used as substitute for true vanilla,
but they are of inferior quality. The family
Umbelliferae is characterized by the possession of aromatic fruits. These fruits consist of two one-seeded
carpels, or mericarps, with numerous oil ducts containing essential
oils. The mericarps separate readily
and are so seed like in appearance that they are often called seeds. These savory “seeds” are usually used
whole for flavoring. The most common
commercial species are anise, caraway, celery, coriander, cumin, dill and
fennel. Pimpinella anisum is mentioned in
writings of the Hebrews, Greeks and Romans and was highly valued during the
Middle Ages for its real or reputed medicinal value. Anise is an annual, about 2 ft. tall with
simple or ternate basal leaves and pinnate stem leaves. The small fruits are grayish brown and
covered with short hairs. Anise is
extensively cultivated in Europe, Asia Minor, India, Mexico and parts of
South America. It is indigenous in
the Mediterranean region. It is used
for flavoring cakes, curries, pastry and candy. The oil is distilled and used in medicine, perfumery, soaps and
other toilet articles and beverages.
The liqueur anisette is widely used, especially in Southern Europe. Carum carvi is a native of Europe
and Western Asia, but has become widely distributed in temperate regions of
both hemispheres, often occurring as a weed.
It was cultivated in Europe before the time of the Lake Dwellers. The plant is a perennial with thick roots,
compound leaves with linear segments and small white flowers. The brown fruits are slightly curved and
tapering. These “seeds” are used by
the baking industry, in perfumery, medicine and beverages, such as the
liqueur Kűmmel.
Caraway is grown commercially throughout Northern Europe and in parts
of North America. Celery “seeds”, Apium graveolens var.
dulce,
are used in flavoring foods. These
fruits are small and dark brown with a pronounced celery flavor. The oil has some medicinal value, but is
used mainly for flavoring in the form of an extract. Salt flavored with celery-seed oil or the
ground seeds, is in great demand for culinary purposes. Coriandrum
sativum,
native to the Mediterranean region, is mentioned in Egyptian, Sanskrit,
Hebrew and Roman literature. During
the Middle Ages it had many strange uses, such as love potions, incense, etc. The plant is widely grown in Europe,
Morocco, India and South Hispanic America.
It is a perennial, 3-ft. in height with small white or pinkish
flowers. The lower leaves have broad
segments while the upper are very narrow.
The globular yellow-brown fruits have a characteristic odor when fresh
and are often used in salads and sauces.
Some find the odor offensive.
The dried fruits are pleasantly aromatic and serve as a common
flavoring for both sweet and savory foods, especially in Europe and
India. The fruits are frequently
candied in a sugar solution and sold as “sugar plums.” Oil of coriander is used in medicine and
in flavoring beverages, such as gin, whisky and various liqueurs. The extract is superior to either the
dried fruit or the oil for flavoring. Cuminum cyminum has been cultivated for
such a long period that it is impossible to determine its place of
origin. It most likely originated in
the Mediterranean area. The plant is
an attractive small annual with small pinkish flowers. The elongated oval fruits are light brown
and hot and aromatic. Cumin was
valued highly by the ancients and is frequently mentioned in the Bible. Today is widely grown in Southern Europe,
India and warmer parts of North America.
The fruits are used in soup, curries, bread, cake, cheese and pickles
and often are candied. The oil is
used in perfumery and for flavoring beverages. Anethum graveolens, indigenous to
Eurasia, still grows wild in many places.
It was known in ancient Greece, Rome and Palestine where it was held
in high esteem. It is cultivated in
Europe, India and North America. The
plant is a small annual or biennial with light green leaves and yellow
flowers. The “seeds” are oval, light
brown and very compressed. In North
America dill is used mainly for flavoring pickles. In France, India and other countries it is widely used in
soups, sauces and stews and for other culinary purposes. Dill oil is frequently used as a
substitute for the seeds. Both the
seeds and the oil are used in medicine.
The leaves are becoming more widely used in salads. Foeniculum vulgare has an interesting
history. Native to the Mediterranean
region, it has spread all over the world and often occurs as an escape from
cultivation. The ancient Chinese,
Hindus and Egyptians knew it as a culinary spice. The Romans cultivated it for its aromatic fruits and edible
shoots. It is essential in modern
French and Italian cuisine. All parts
of the plant are aromatic and are utilized in various ways. Fennel is a tall perennial with finely
divided leaves and yellow flowers.
The “seeds” are oval and greenish or yellowish brown. They are used in cooking and for candy and
liqueurs. The oil is used in
perfumes, medicine and soaps. The
thickened leafstalks of one variety, Finochio or
Florence fennel (F. vulgare var. dulce) are blanched and used as a
vegetable. The aromatic seeds of the
cardamom, Elettaria
cardamomum,
have been an important spice in the Orient for centuries. The plant is a native of India and is
cultivated mainly in that country and Sri Lanka. It has also been introduced into other tropical areas. Large quantities are grown in Central
America, especially Guatemala. It is
a perennial herb, 6-12 ft. tall, with long lanceolate leaves with sheathing
bases. The white flowers, with a blue
and yellow lib, are borne on a separate elongated stalk. The fruits that are triangular paper-thin
capsules are borne the year round.
The small seeds are light colored and have a delicate flavor. They are usually kept in the fruit until
required for the flavor is superior.
In other cases seeds of either wild or cultivated plants are gathered
when completely ripe and dried in the sun.
Few spices are handled with greater care. Cardamoms are used in cakes, pickles, and curries and for other
culinary purposes, as well as in medicine.
They are a popular masticatory in India. The oil is used to some extent in cooking and in flavoring
beverages. Trigonella
foenum-graecum,
is an annual legume with white flowers and long slender pods with a
pronounced beak. It is native to
Southern Europe and Asia where it is grown for forage and ornamental
purposes. The small seeds are used in
India for curries, in dyeing and in medicine. The extract is used with other aromatic substances to make an
artificial maple flavoring. Aframomum melegueta is a perennial herb of
West Africa that is the source of the aromatic seeds known as Grains of
Paradise. The plant has large
rootstalks that send up an erect stem, 8 ft. or more in height, with long
fragrant leaves and showy yellow orchid like flowers in dense spikes. The fruits are orange pear-shaped capsules
that contain the golden brown seeds with a distinctive aroma. These seeds are very pungent and during
the Middle Ages rivaled pepper as a spice.
They are still used somewhat in medicine and for flavoring
beverages. Other species of Amomum
are sometimes utilized as substitutes. Mustard was
widely known since ancient times. It
is frequently mentioned in the Bible and in Greek and Roman writings. During its long history it has had some
curious uses. It is now grown as a field
crop in most temperate regions, especially North America, Europe, China and
Japan. Mainly cultivated for its
seeds, the tops are used as potherbs and salad plants. There are three main species utilized:
white, black and Indian mustard Brassica hirta is a freely branching
annual, 2-6 ft tall, with yellow flowers, hairy lobed leaves and a bristly
pod with a long beak. The small round
seeds are yellow on the outside and white within. They contain mucilage, proteins, a fixed oil and a glucoside, Sinalbin. When
ground seeds are treated with water this glucoside is broken down through
enzyme activity and yields a nonvolatile sulfur compound with a typical sharp
taste and pungency. White mustard is
used in medicine and as a condiment.
The fixed oil is expressed and used externally as a
counterirritant. It is also used as a
lubricant and illuminant. Brassica nigra is also native to
Eurasia. It is grown more commonly,
and has become a weed in North America.
It is cultivated especially in California, Montana and Kentucky. The plant is smaller than the white
mustard and has smooth pods with dark brown seeds that are yellow on the
inside. Black mustard seed has the
same general constituents as white mustard seed. The glucoside, Sinigrin yields on
decomposition a volatile oil containing sulfur, which is responsible for the
pungent, aromatic odor and flavor.
This essential oil is very powerful and dangerous to handle as it can
blister the skin. It also attacks the
membranes of the eyes and nose. When
diluted it is used in medicine as a counterirritant and to some extent in
condiments. The expressed fixed oil
has a mild taste. It is used in
making soap and in medicine. Ground mustard is widely used as a
condiment and in preparing pickles, sardines and salad dressing. It has a stimulating effect on the
salivary glands and also increases the peristaltic movements of the stomach. Mustard and warm water form an efficient
emetic. The more pungent black
mustard is preferred in continental Europe while white mustard is more
popular in England. However, ground
mustard is usually a combination of both kinds. The familiar mustard paste is prepared by treating ground
mustard with salt, vinegar and various aromatics. Brassica juncea is used in India and
parts of Europe as a spice and in cooking.
Its properties are similar to those of black mustard. The fixed oil is expressed and used in
cooking and to anoint the body. Both nutmeg and mace are obtained
from Myristica
fragrans,
native to the Moluccas or Spice Islands.
It is now grown in the tropics worldwide, especially in the East
Indies and the West Indies. These
spices were probably not known to the ancients. However, they had reached Europe by the 12th Century. The discovery of the spice Islands in 1512
led the Portuguese to obtain a monopoly of nutmeg and mace, which later was
dominated by the Dutch. Later trees
were smuggled into French and British possessions and the monopoly was
broken. The plant is a handsome evergreen
tree with dark leaves that reaches a height of 30-60 ft. It is usually dioecious, with small
pale-yellow flowers that are fleshy and aromatic. The ripe fruits are golden-yellow and resemble apricots or
plums. They gradually dry out and
when completely ripe the husk splits open revealing the shiny brown seed
covered with a bright-red branching aril.
The kernel inside the seed is the nutmeg of commerce. The aril is the source of mace. nutmeg is propagated from seed in
nurseries and later transplanted. It
needs a hot moist climate and thrives when near the sea, so that islands are
very favorable for its growth. The
trees come into full bearing when about 20 years old and contuse for 30-40
years. The yield is very high, a
large tree furnishes about 1,000 nutmegs annually. Fruits are produced all year round. After the husks split open the fruits are picked, the pericarp
is removed and the made is stripped from the shell, flattened and dried. it turns a yellowish brown. The seeds are dried and the shell cracked
off. The kernels are removed, sorted
and often treated with lime to prevent insect attack. Mace is a very delicately flavored
spice and is used with savory dishes and in making pickles, ketchup and
sauces. Nutmegs have been used medicinally
and as a culinary spice for centuries.
Grated nutmeg is used with puddings, custards and other sweet dishes
and with various beverages. A jelly
is made from the fresh husks of the ripe fruit. An essential oil is extracted for use in medicine and as a
flavoring agent. This oil contains a
very toxic substance, Myristicin, and can be used only
in small amounts. Caution must also
be exercised in the use of nutmeg and mace.
nutmeg oil is used in the perfume and tobacco industries and in
dentifrices. Nutmegs contain a fixed
oil, called nutmeg butter. The South American trees, Dipteryx odorata and D. oppositifolia, are the source of
Tonka beans. They serve as a
substitute for vanilla. Most of the
commercial supply is from Colombia, Venezuela and Brazil. The large trees, up to 110 ft tall, have strange
egg-shaped fruits with a hard shell and pulpy flesh surrounding a single
seed. The fallen fruits are
collected, broken open and dried.
These resemble Jordan almonds and have a black wrinkled surface. They contain a crystalline substance, Coumarin, which is of importance in the manufacture of
perfumes. The odor is that of
new-mown hay, and closely suggests vanilla.
The beans, or an alcohol extract are used for flavoring tobacco,
cosmetics, perfumes, soap, liqueurs, as a substitute for vanilla in cocoa,
candy and ice cream and as a fixative for dyes. The aromatic
leaves of many plants frequently have been used to flavor foods and for their
medicinal qualities. Many of these
belong to the mint family that is identified by its aromatic odor, square
stems and small bilabiate corollas.
Some of the more important mints are basil, peppermint, balm,
marjoram, savory, sage, thyme, spearmint, bay , parsley, terragon and
wintergreen. Sweet basil, Ocimum basilicum, is most likely native
to India and Africa. It has been used
in India for centuries as a condiment and in England because of its aromatic
qualities. The leaves are used in salads,
stews dressings as an ingredient of mock turtle soup and Fetter Lane sausages. Basil is also very popular in French and
Italian cookery. The golden-yellow
essential oil is used in perfumery and various beverages. There are several varieties. Mentha piperita is one of the most
important of the aromatic herbs. It
is a perennial found wild in moist ground in the temperate parts of Asia,
Europe and America. It is cultivated
in Europe and has been an important crop plant in America for since the 18th
Century. Mucky soils that are
unsuitable for other types of agriculture are ideal. The crop is harvested with mowing machines
when in blossom and after drying it is hauled to distilleries. Peppermint has a refreshing odor and a
persistent cooling taste. The leaves
are used for flavoring but the oil, obtained by steam distillation, is of
greater importance. The oil is used
to flavor candy, gum, dentifrices and various pharmaceutical
preparations. It is valuable in both
internal and external medicine and in the perfume and soap industries. Because of its penetrating odor it has
often been used to detect leaks in pipes.
Peppermint camphor or menthol, a derivative of the oil extracted by
freezing, is valuable as an antiseptic and has been used in the treatment of
the common cold. Japanese peppermint, Mentha arvensis var.
piperascens,
is cultivated in Japan, Brazil and North America as the main source of
methol. Although the menthol content
is higher than in Mentha piperita, both the oil and the camphor are
very bitter and less valuable. Melissa officinalis is a perennial herb of
Southern Europe that has been introduced into all temperate climates. It has been cultivated since before 100
B.C. and was well known to the Greeks, Arabs and Romans. The leaves are used in stews, sauces,
soups, dressings and salads. The
essential oil has a lemon flavor and is used in beverages. The flowers are an important source of
honey. Sweet marjoram, Majorana hortensis, is indigenous in the Mediterranean
region where it has been known since ancient times. It is a sacred plant in India and is popular both in Europe and
North America. The leaves, flowers
and tender stems are used for flavoring syrups, dressings, stews and
sauces. The essential oil is used for
perfumes and soap. Pot Marjoram, Origanum vulgare, is also used as a
substitute. <bot680> Marjoram in flower (Majorana hortensis) [Mediterranean] (ex. Riverside, CA) Satureja hortensis is native to the
Mediterranean region but is now grown worldwide. The leaves are strongly aromatic with a warm bitter
taste. Its principal use is in
sauces, dressings and gravies. It was
used as a potherb during Roman times.
Winter savory, Satureja montana is of some importance in
Europe. Salvia officinalis has been a valued spice
for use in making stuffing for meats, sausage and fowl. It adds zest to Italian cookery. The plant is a shrubby herb of the
Mediterranean region. The grayish
green hairy leaves are very aromatic.
It has been used for its reputed health benefits since Roman
times. Oil of sage is used in the
perfume industry. <bot681> Sage (Salvia officinalis) [Mediterranean] (ex. Riverside, CA) Thymus vulgaris is indigenous to the
Mediterranean region where it is widespread as a wild plant. It has escaped cultivation in most
countries and often escapes. Thyme
has been used since the time of the Greeks and Romans as incense and as a
source of honey, the latter being distinctive and of high quality. The fresh or dried green parts of this low
shrubby plant are used in sauces, soups, dressings and gravies. The oil is used in perfumery. Thymol, a derivative of
the oil, is antiseptic and is used in mouthwashes, toothpastes, as a
fungicide and as an internal medicine where it is effective against
hookworm. It also has some industrial
uses. Mentha spicata is native to temperate
Asia and Europe. It is now common
worldwide. It was known before the
Christian era. Both fresh and dried
leaves are used for jelly, mint sauce and to flavor soups, sauces, stews and
beverages. It is also used in chewing
gum, candy, dentifrices and medicine.
The plant resembles peppermint but has longer and lighter colored
leaves and more pointed spikes. It is
mild in flavor. Sweet bay, Laurus nobilis, is a small tree
native to Asia Minor. It is very
ornamental and is often cultivated.
The leaves constituted the laurel of antiquity, the symbol of
victory. These leaves are bitter and
aromatic and are widely used in cooking.
Bay is extensively grown in Europe where the leaves are used in
puddings, soups and other culinary products.
It is an ingredient of the “bouquet” the small bunch of sweet herbs
used widely by the French. The
essential oil was once used in medicine.
Bay leaves also contain a fixed oil. Petroselinum crispum is one of the most
widely cultivated garden herbs. It is
native to the rocky shores of the Mediterranean, but has escaped from
cultivation in all moist cool climates.
The plant is usually biennial and during the first year produces a
dense tuft of dark green finely divided leaves. The leaves are used as a garnish and for flavoring soups,
stuffing and omelets. They are a good
source of Vitamin C. In Europe the
tops are often used for potherbs and the roots as boiled vegetables. Artemisia dracunculus is a small herbaceous
perennial of Western Asia that is widely grown in Europe for its pungent,
aromatic leaves, which are used in making vinegar and pickles. It is also
used for seasoning salads, soups and various meats. The tender shoots can also be utilized. The essential oil is used to perfume
toilet articles. Wintergreen or Checkerberry is important as a flavoring in North
America. The original source was Gaultheria procumbens, a low creeping
evergreen plant with flat, dark green shiny leaves that grows wild in eastern
North America. The leaves contain a
glucoside, which breaks down in water to form methyl salicylate or oil of
wintergreen. The oil is distilled
from the leaves in copper stills. It
was once an important industry in New England. The sweet birch, Betula lenta, contains the same glucoside in its bark and the young twigs
and bark of this plant have generally displaced the checkerberry as the
source of oil. The oil is used in
medicine and in flavoring candy, soft drinks, chewing gum and dentifrices. Other plants that contain aromatic
oils and that are used to some extent in medicine and for flavoring are
certain mints, such as Catnip, Nepeta cataria, Clary
Sage, Salvia sclarea, Hyssop,
Hyssopus
officinalis,
and European Pennyroyal, Mentha pulegium. Some that belong to other plant families
include Chervil, Anthriscus
cerefolium,
Lovage, Levisticum
officinale,
Rue, Ruta graveolens, and Tansy, Tanacetum vulgare. Misc. Spices & Flavoring
Substances Various other
plants that are used as flavorings but which are discussed in other section
include calamus root, almonds chives, garlic,
hoarhound, cubebs, lavender, lemon, lime, orange, pistachio, orris root,
poppy seeds, sesame and rosemary. |